Introduction

Corpus linguistics is an academic field that employs computational methods to analyze large amounts of naturally occurring linguistic data. In recent years, corpus-based research has been extensively conducted across diverse domains, including lexicography, grammatical analysis, and linguistic variation and change. The field originated in the 1950s and has been primarily driven by the increasing interest in real language use, which was greatly facilitated by technological advancements. As Tognini-Bonelli (2010, p. 15) points out, “It was not the linguistic climate but the technological one that stimulated the development of corpora.”

Corpus linguistics was initially grounded in lexicology (McCarthy & O’Keeffe, 2010), focusing on word lists and concordance principles based on increasingly larger texts or collections of smaller texts. Historically, this method can be traced back to the thirteenth century when clerics began indexing words and phrases. According to McCarthy and O’Keeffe (2010, p. 3),

“Concordancing arose out of a practical need to specify for other biblical scholars, in alphabetical arrangement, the words contained in the Bible, along with citations of where and in what passages they occurred.”

From the 1960s onwards, newer attempts involved larger and more varied compilations of texts, encompassing both written and spoken language (Francis & Kučera, 1964, for written language ; Sinclair, 1963, for spoken language, as cited in Tognini-Bonelli, 2010). The proliferation of language corpora has led to a significant breakthrough at the methodological level, as corpus linguistics relies on computer counting, which is interpreted qualitatively. This controversial approach to data analysis challenges the traditional dichotomy of quantitative and qualitative paradigms in research by introducing a hybrid version of examination that currently prevails in linguistic studies. As Tognini-Bonelli asserts,

“It is strange to imagine that simply having more data and better counting could trigger philosophical repositionings, but that is indeed what has happened” (2010, p. 18).

Given these assumptions, a central methodological consideration concerns the role of texts as the fundamental unit of analysis. Unlike the functionalist perspective, which views the text as a cohesive and meaningful entity (Halliday, 1994), corpus linguistics prioritizes the frequency and recurrence of linguistic occurrences over their communicative importance. The focus is on identifying significant elements, characterized by recurring patterns and co-selection. This emphasis underscores the importance of the frequency of occurrence in this field of study (Tognini-Bonelli, 2010, p. 19). Hence, the formalist approach becomes more prevalent, as the primary objective of corpus linguistics is to scrutinize a language sample and generalize its findings to the entire language. By examining language patterns relevant to the selected sample, one can gain insights into broader linguistic norms and distinctive characteristics.

This study explores the potential of corpus stylistics in literary analysis by focusing on the thematic and grammatical features of Jamaica Kincaid’s Lucy (1990). More specifically, the paper seeks to answer the following question : How does corpus-based stylistic analysis enhance our understanding of Kincaid’s representation of identity, agency, and female empowerment in Lucy ? The paper examines the first three chapters of the novel, utilizing computational tools to assess the frequency and distribution of various grammatical units. By applying feminist stylistic theory, the study aims to demonstrate how Kincaid’s linguistic choices construct the protagonist’s transformation from an objectified figure to an autonomous subject.

Despite the increasing interest in corpus linguistics, its application in literary studies remains relatively underexplored. This research fills this gap by illustrating how corpus-based approaches can offer fresh insights into literary texts, moving beyond traditional qualitative interpretations. By focusing on Lucy, a novel deeply rooted in themes of migration, cultural dislocation, and gendered identity, this study highlights how corpus-based methods can illuminate the intersection between linguistic patterns and feminist discourse.

The study shows how the protagonist navigates both the victim and victimizer roles, demonstrating a complex post-feminist positioning. The use of corpus-based methods not only uncovers linguistic subtleties in Kincaid’s text but also provides an objective, data-driven perspective on feminist themes.

1. Exploring Corpus Linguistics : A Literature Review and Methodological Overview

1.1 Literature Review

John Sinclair is a renowned figure in corpus linguistics, largely due to his outstanding contributions to the field. Over the years, Sinclair’s research on collocations, or the recurrent pairing of certain words, has been instrumental in shaping how language education and lexicography are approached. Remarkably innovative, Sinclair developed computational techniques for analyzing speech data, positioning himself as a leading expert. His work continues to significantly impact the field, with ongoing recognition and application.

Michael Halliday (1994) is another influential figure who has made remarkable contributions to corpus linguistics. His revolutionary research on grammar and language systems has earned him widespread acclaim. Halliday’s work on Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) has been particularly significant in developing corpus-based methods for analyzing language structure. Alongside Sinclair, Halliday’s pioneering efforts have propelled the study of corpus linguistics to new levels of sophistication and rigor.

In the same vein, Douglas Biber has made notable contributions to studying language variation and change (Biber, 1993 ; 1995 ; 2003). In most of his works, Biber discusses the use of corpora in language research and their potential benefits. He argues that diversified corpora, representative of the language being studied, can reveal patterns and variations in language use that more traditional methods of analysis may miss. Biber also examines similarities and differences in register variation across different languages and proposes a framework for assessing the representativeness of a corpus. His research underscores the importance of using representative corpora in language studies to ensure valid research findings.

Despite the manifold benefits of corpus-based approaches, the field faces several challenges. One of the most significant obstacles is related to the completeness and complexity of the datasets involved. Furthermore, utilizing computational techniques for speech analysis can be daunting for those without a background in computer science. Additionally, despite its utility, corpus linguistics has limited applicability in the field of literary studies. Most research in this domain focuses on linguistic and language-based phenomena, with fewer studies applying corpus-based techniques to literature. This limitation stems from a general lack of understanding regarding the nature of corpus linguistics and its potential for analyzing literary texts.

The quantitative nature of corpus methods, combined with the perceived lack of interpretive depth in their analysis, may discourage some from using them in literary studies. Furthermore, there are few large and diverse literary corpora suitable for corpus-based analysis, which makes literary texts appear more unique and intricate than quantifiable. The development of specialized literary corpora remains an ongoing process, limiting the range of analyses that can be performed.

Despite these limitations, corpus linguistics can provide valuable insights into the language used in literature. Through quantitative analysis of language usage patterns, corpus techniques can reveal writers’ linguistic preferences and the stylistic effects they create. As the field of corpus linguistics expands, it is becoming increasingly useful for shedding light on the language of literature. Though still in its early stages, the potential of corpus linguistics to impact literary studies is vast and is likely to grow in the coming years.

1.2 Corpus Linguistics, Corpus Stylistics, and Literature

The significance of corpus linguistics as a method for analyzing literary works has increased in recent years. With advanced methodologies, it is now possible to quantify language usage and identify patterns that were previously unattainable. Researchers can examine vast quantities of text using corpora, leading to the discovery of patterns that may have remained concealed if only a single text or a few texts were analyzed. This approach enables a more in-depth and unbiased analysis of literary works.

In recent years, the use of corpora for stylistic analysis has gained traction, leading to the development of a new branch of computational linguistics known as corpus stylistics. This field involves using statistical and computational tools to examine various style-related elements, including word length, sentence structure, and lexical choice. Literary evaluation through corpus stylistic studies spans genres such as novels, plays, poetry, and short stories, exploring literary patterns across movements like modernism, postmodernism, feminism, and postfeminism.

In the 1990s, some of the first investigations into corpus stylistics were conducted, including works by McEnery and Wilson (1996), Hoey (1996), and Stubbs (1996, 2005). In recent decades, the field has expanded considerably, with numerous studies launched during this time. Research in corpus stylistics has focused on various topics, including metaphors, character development, point of view, and the development of time and space.

A recent example of corpus stylistic research is Ju’s (2023) study of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, which examined its lexical, phrase, syntax, and rhetorical features. The analysis revealed Fitzgerald’s frequent use of past tense verbs, phrase collocations, syntactic deviations, and rhetorical devices to depict the characters of 1920s America and to account for the illusory nature of the American Dream and its eventual decay.

Similarly, Zhao (2012) explored the density and variety of parallelism in Virginia Woolf’s To the Lighthouse, comparing it with other notable modernist novels. The analysis revealed Woolf’s extensive use of antithetical and synonymous lexical bundles, juxtaposed propositional phrases, -ing participles, and appositional structures. These elements allowed her to build the plot sequentially while enriching the novel’s narrative with oppositions, synonyms, and rhetorical expressions. The findings underscore Woolf’s ability to manipulate these linguistic resources to create an aesthetic balance between poetry and prose, as well as between reality and fiction.

Further studies have explored keywords and key semantic domains in literary works. For instance, Culpeper (2002) used keyword lists to distinguish between the main characters in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet by comparing the play to a corpus of all Shakespeare’s works. The results revealed the prominence of first-person pronouns in the dialogue, highlighting the characters’ personal involvement. Similarly, Mahlberg and McIntyre (2011) conducted an analysis of keywords and key semantic domains in Ian Fleming’s Casino Royale, identifying two distinct categories : fictional worlds and thematic signals.

As technology advances and more sophisticated tools emerge, corpus stylistics continues to evolve, offering more refined methods for literary analysis. This field provides insights that traditional literary criticism often overlooks, highlighting the vast potential of corpus-based approaches for analyzing literature.

2. Methodology

This study presents a corpus stylistics-based analysis of Jamaica Kincaid’s novel Lucy. The research focuses on two key linguistic dimensions : (1) thematic fields (semantic domains) and (2) grammatical structures (pronouns, verb types, adjectives, and modality markers).

A systematic, data-driven, and mixed-method approach is adopted to identify patterns and trends in themes and grammar that may not be immediately apparent through traditional qualitative analysis methods. To enhance accuracy, the study integrates triangulation by cross-referencing corpus results with textual close reading.

The software TROPES, a natural language processing tool, is used to extract recurrent linguistic markers that contribute to meaning construction in the novel. The analysis is limited to the most frequent themes and grammatical units, as these play a crucial role in shaping the text’s meaning and interpretation. Additionally, given the scope of this study, only significant patterns are discussed. Tables will present key findings to ensure clarity and transparency in reporting results.

Before engaging in textual analysis, a brief overview of Lucy is provided to contextualize the novel’s central themes of immigration, identity, and cultural displacement. The novel follows Lucy, a young Antiguan woman, as she navigates cultural contrasts, grapples with her identity, and confronts the lasting effects of colonialism.

3. Results and Discussion

This section is devoted to the data analysis and discussion of the results obtained from the study of Lucy using Tropes. The analysis begins by examining the major themes addressed in the novel, then moves on to scrutinize the most frequent grammatical units, namely verb types, pronouns, and adjectives found in the text. The table below demonstrates that the major advantage of the system’s corpus stylistic characteristics is that the subsets can be searched independently of one another.

As seen in Table 1 below, the most prominent theme is the deployment of time and its markers. Comparing quotations and non-quotations reveals that time references occur 383 times in the text. The term “time” is used as a discourse marker, and time markers play a vital role in character construction. As readers, we generally rely on time markers to establish a chronological frame of reference for the events depicted in the text. The presence of temporal information such as morning, day, night, future, past, and January, as well as the repetition of such markers, can indicate both certainty and confusion regarding time. Readers can easily connect the time period to Lucy’s narrative and the protagonist’s shifting perceptions of temporality.

The time elements—day, night, and past—may become deeply ingrained in the reader’s temporal self-orientation. For instance, the word “now” is projected forward to a time in the future in “Me happy now just to think of it, the other my future. A gray blank” and “If I had had to draw a picture of my future then, it would have been a large gray patch surrounded by black.” It appears that the events depicted are still unfolding, blurring the line between the protagonist’s past experiences and future expectations. The interplay between present and past tense brings these events to immediate awareness, creating a conflation of past and present timelines that mirrors Lucy’s fragmented sense of self.

3.1. Thematic Analysis

As seen in Table 1, the most prominent theme is the deployment of time and its markers. Comparing quotations and non-quotations reveals that time references occur 383 times in the text. The term “time” is used as a discourse marker, and time markers play a vital role in character construction. Additionally, Lucy’s temporal references frequently reveal her psychological displacement, reinforcing the theme of exile and identity fragmentation.

Another dominant theme concerns the use of body parts. With 378 occurrences, references to the body highlight the protagonist’s oscillation between objectification and self-agency. The term “body” functions as a discursive marker, with body language playing a significant role in the creation and development of the character. When a word or phrase is quoted, it may point to specific textual goals ; thus, it is necessary to consider the immediate context that allows for various interpretations. In this context, the primary lexical fields related to body parts include (mouth, feet, neck, hands, eyes, heart, stomach, head, throat, skin). These elements are imbued with multiple symbolic meanings, and their interpretation heavily depends on the specific context of the narrative.

For example, the word “I” in the phrase “as I opened my eyes” connects the “I” and “eyes” to the idea of agency. The character has reached the ultimate goal of self-determination. When we read “eye” as something meaningful, it refers to the essence of being, and a crucial sense emerges : “I/eye” becomes the subject, not the object. Similarly, the statement “I longed to see them dead at my feet” emphasizes the relationship between “I” (the subject) and “foot” as an expression of power, where the foot becomes a symbol of submission or humility.

The third major theme in the narrative is that of family. The term “family” serves as a discursive marker, playing an important role in character development. Family is conceptualized as a spiritual value, representing love at home and in one’s homeland. In other words, family embodies the idea of making people happy and not leaving them in loneliness : “I should regard them as my family and make myself at home.” The word “family” is highlighted with its components, such as “I knew that such a thing would not be said to a member of their real family” or “my own family would not appear before me in one way or another,” underscoring the sense of loss and absence.

The analysis of emotions and their unfolding in the text also shows significant depth. The text explores feelings such as joy, sadness, disappointment, fear, homesickness, surprise, rage, discontent, love, and mercy—common human experiences. The feeling of “homesickness” is particularly significant, whether due to geographical distance, the passage of time, or the material difference of “home.” It heightens sensitivity to various kinds of loss. In examples such as “I only knew I felt a little like sadness but heavier than that…”, the adjective “sad” is attributed to the abstract concept of “thoughts,” which constitutes an interesting lexical deviation, reflecting the character’s attempt to reinterpret her past memories, often associated with melancholy, in a new way.

Table 1. Themes in Jamaica Kincaid’s novel Lucy

Theme	Examples
1. Time (383)	Morning, day, night, future, past, and January • “Me happy now just to think of it, the other, my future. A gray blank.” • “If I had to draw a picture of my future then, it would have been a large gray patch surrounded by black.” • Lucy’s narrative blurs past and present, reinforcing her sense of dislocation.
2. Body (378)	Mouth, feet, neck, hands, eyes, heart, stomach, head, throat, skin. • “As I opened my eyes…” • “I longed to see them dead at my feet.” • The portrayal of body parts underscores Lucy’s fluctuating agency.
3. Family (292)	“I should regard them as my family and make myself at home.” • “I knew that such a thing would not be said to a member of their real family.” • Lucy’s detachment from familial constructs highlights her alienation.
4. Feeling (258)	Happiness, sadness, disappointment, fright, unhappiness, homesickness, surprise, rage, discontent, love. • “I only knew I felt a little like sadness, but heavier than that…” • Emotional descriptors intensify Lucy’s psychological turmoil.
5. Housing (157)	“I was only an unhappy woman living in a maid’s room, and I was not even the maid.” • “I always lived in a house, and my house did not have a refrigerator in it.” • Housing metaphors underscore Lucy’s socioeconomic displacement.
6. Woman (115)	“There was a girl being beaten by a man she could not see…” • The depiction of women highlights themes of vulnerability and resistance.
7. Man (109)	“I will make you fishers of men.” • “I was sucking the tongue of a boy named Tanner.” • The male figures in the novel serve both as oppressors and subjects of desire.
8. Mariah (181)	“Mariah stood at the open window saying, ‘Catch her, Lewis, catch her !’” • Mariah represents a contrast to Lucy, embodying privilege and naivety.
9. Lucy (0)	• The absence of Lucy in thematic categorization suggests her shifting identity and resistance to definition.

Overall, this analysis of themes in Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid enhances the understanding of narrative constructions and linguistic representations in the novel. The text effectively explores the duality of identity, emotion, and exile, shedding light on the internal and external tensions of the character.

3.2. Linguistic Analysis of Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid : Language, Agency, and Identity

The linguistic analysis of Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid, focusing on the grammatical categories of verbs, adjectives, and modalities, offers insight into how language reflects the internal and external dynamics of the protagonist, Lucy. In this novel, the choice of verbs, pronouns, and adjectives goes beyond mere grammatical structure, acting as a reflection of the protagonist’s emotional and psychological struggles, while also highlighting her perception of the world around her. The use of factive and reflexive verbs, alongside personal pronouns like “I,” grants Lucy a certain agency while simultaneously emphasizing her passivity and emotional detachment from her environment. Subjective adjectives, often laden with negative connotations, underscore the themes of suffering, loneliness, and isolation that she faces, reinforcing the internal dissonance and marginalization that define her experience. Additionally, the modalities—particularly negation and time markers—reveal a fragmented worldview and a sense of resignation that pervades the narrative. This analysis demonstrates how Kincaid uses specific linguistic structures to express complex identity, psychological, and social issues, offering a window into the subtleties of the protagonist’s lived experience.

Table 2. Verbs and Pronouns in Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid

Verbs/Pronouns	Percentage (occurrence)
Factive	37.2 % (2777)
Stative	31.5 % (2350)
Reflexive	30.9 % (2304)
Performative	0.4 % (28)
I	47.5 % (2126)

In Kincaid’s novel Lucy, verbs are frequently used with a human agent, and the pronoun “I” (2126 occurrences) often represents the subject-agent. For example, in the sentence, “I will make you fishers of men,” the pronoun “I,” as though with its own power, becomes the subject-agent. Verbs such as talk (78), eat (30), and others that may include agency are used in the active form. Stative verbs are more frequent (2350), such as resemble, look, lie, feel, and see. The prevailing impression is that the female protagonist, Lucy, while highly aware of her surroundings, is distant and impotent in the face of her own power. This passive stance, emphasized by stative verbs, indicates her emotional and psychological detachment from her environment. The analysis also highlights the low frequency of performative verbs (28 occurrences), reinforcing Lucy’s struggle to assert control over her circumstances.

Table 3. Grammar Word Category in Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid

Adjectives	Percentage (occurrence)
Objective	61.3 % (1616)
Subjective	31.5 % (830)

The grammar word category is another crucial element in text analysis and understanding. In the most basic sense, this text includes two kinds of adjectives : objective (1616) and subjective (830), although the distinction is not always evident. Objective adjectives refer to physical or inherent features of an item or situation, such as red, yellow, white, black, or rose. On the other hand, subjective adjectives denote the female protagonist’s personal attitude toward an object or situation, or they evoke a specific image in the reader’s mind. Examples include hated, heavy, unhappy, cold, afraid, and alone. These emotional adjectives are predominantly negative, connected to themes of disempowerment, loneliness, and rough living. Furthermore, adjectives like cold, alone, bad, and strange emphasize strangeness or lack of definition, often with negative connotations. Some adjectives, such as cold, afraid, and alone, convey a sense of negativity (“not homely,” “feeling strange,” stressing the scene’s frightening emptiness). These adjectives contrast with a few terms that imply calmness, such as comfortable, good, or spring.

Table 4. Adjectives in Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid

Adjectives	Frequency
Cold	20
Alone	17
Bad	15
Strange	8
Afraid	7
Hated	5
Heavy	5
Unhappy	5
Unusual	5
Sad	5

Regarding the use of modality, the most frequent type of modality in Lucy is modality markers of negation (747), followed by time markers (730), which reflect the temporal perspective of the speaker with respect to past, present, and future. Assertion modality markers (124) relate directly to the certainty of the occurrence of the event. For instance, “I could now look back at the winter” expresses a sense of retrospective certainty. Doubt modality markers (43) reflect the speaker’s ability to act, as in the example “I was reminded of how uncomfortable the new can make you feel.” Negation modality markers (747) convey the speaker’s certainty that a positive assertion is false. Examples include “I could not be the only person in the world” and “because the Devil cannot walk over water.”

Table 5. Modalities in Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid

Modalities	Percentage (occurrence)
Time	24.2 % (730)
Place	14.3 % (432)
Manner	17.2 % (518)
Assertion	4.1 % (124)
Doubt	1.4 % (43)
Negation	24.8 % (747)

Negation is expressed with various negation markers. For instance, “I could not be the only person in the world” and “It would not be my last” express strong negations, while “must never stop” highlights an unavoidable negation, where the negative force applies not only to the verb would but also to must, indicating that it is inevitable that this is not the speaker’s last disappointment. The presence of 747 negation markers further underscores Lucy’s resistance to imposed identities, reflecting a broader postcolonial critique of power structures.

Overall, the analysis of Jamaica Kincaid’s Lucy reveals the writer’s use of certain linguistic patterns to reflect the protagonist’s post-feminist perspective and ambiguous positioning within the victim-victimizer archetype. The study of literary texts through linguistic analysis provides valuable insights into both literary and linguistic research. Through its examination of verbs, adjectives, and modalities, the analysis highlights the power of language in expressing the writer’s views, style, and worldview. Additionally, the use of linguistic software has proven to be an excellent tool in exploring such textual dimensions.

Conclusion and Implications

This analysis of Jamaica Kincaid’s Lucy, grounded in corpus-based methodologies, underscores the importance of computational text analysis in literary studies. By integrating quantitative approaches to examine thematic patterns, linguistic choices, and narrative structures, this study offers new perspectives on the author’s stylistic and ideological frameworks. The frequency results highlight Kincaid’s post-feminist perspective, illustrating Lucy’s journey toward female empowerment as she navigates and challenges patriarchal norms.

More specifically, the corpus-based approach reveals Kincaid’s depiction of an ambivalent female protagonist who oscillates between objectification and empowerment, impotence and self-agency. Lucy’s conflicting interactions with others reflect her ongoing struggle for autonomy, as she simultaneously resists and seeks external validation. Furthermore, the analysis of linguistic patterns, such as reflexive verbs like “reflect” and “realize,” illuminates Lucy’s internal struggles with identity and self-examination in a post-colonial context. By examining the significance of absence in the text, the tool also reinforces her ultimate presence as a diasporic heroine in this Bildungsroman, demonstrating how Kincaid employs language to construct a dynamic and performative character.

Corpus stylistic approaches play a crucial role in exploring the intricate relationship between language and literature, offering scholars the ability to detect patterns, trends, and nuances in textual composition. By systematically analyzing Kincaid’s lexical choices—such as the recurrence of adjectives like “cold,” “alone,” and “strange”—this study uncovers how language reinforces themes of alienation and disempowerment in Lucy’s experience. The computational approach provides fresh insights into interpretation by mitigating the subjectivity inherent in traditional literary criticism, fostering a more objective understanding of literary language and its role in shaping character construction and thematic development.

This method entails a discerning exploration of the nuanced elements that differentiate one literary work from another, as well as a thorough examination of the diverse genres that shape creative expression. Additionally, it deepens our understanding of the dynamic interplay between linguistic evolution and cultural shifts. By blending qualitative and quantitative methodologies, this approach enhances our appreciation of literary complexity and its broader implications in reflecting and shaping societal dynamics.

The findings of this study emphasize the need for interdisciplinary approaches in literary analysis, integrating computational tools with feminist and postcolonial criticism to enhance our understanding of identity and empowerment. Future research could extend this methodology to other works of Caribbean literature, further examining the intersections of language, gender, and identity. Additionally, incorporating sentiment analysis could refine our comprehension of emotional progression within character arcs.

Ultimately, this study underscores the potential of corpus-based methodologies to challenge conventional literary criticism while offering a data-driven perspective on feminist and postcolonial narratives. By embracing computational tools, scholars can push the boundaries of literary interpretation, revealing new dimensions of meaning in texts and deepening our understanding of how language shapes narratives, characters, and themes.